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A Pillow is a support of the body at rest for comfort, therapy, or decoration. Pillows are used in different variations by many species, including humans. Some types of pillows include throw pillows, body pillows, decorative pillows, and many more.^[1] Pillows that aid sleeping are a form of bedding that supports the head and neck. Other types of pillows are designed to support the body when lying down or sitting. There are also pillows that consider human body shape for increased comfort during sleep. Decorative pillows used on beds, couches or chairs are sometimes referred to as cushions.^[2][3]

In contemporary western culture, pillows consist of a plain or patterned fabric envelope (known as a pillowcase) which contains a soft stuffing, typically synthetic and typically standardized in sizes and shape.^[4] Pillows have been historically made of a variety of natural materials and many cultures continue to use pillows made from natural materials in the world.

The word pillow comes from Middle English pilwe, from Old English pyle (akin to Old High German pfuliwi) and from Latin pulvinus. The first known use of the word pillow was before the 12th century.^[5]

History

Use of pillows evolved in animals well into prehistory, reptiles and mammals use bodies as pillows, either rest their heads on themselves, and one another, to support the head and neck.^[1] Use of pillows for comfort is evident in arboreal mammals, particularly members of Panthera and Hominoidea with several species observed selecting specific parts of tree branches for this purpose.^[6] Natural resting postures, such as the use of a laterally rotated arm or leg, may be superior to artificially created pillows in the reduction of stiffness and pain in the joints, and allows an animal to stay more alert to danger by keeping both ears open.^[7]

Pillow or cushion making is not exclusive to humans. Nest-building primates sometimes create pillow like structures. Tree dwelling orangutans typically use twigs to create them^[8] while chimpanzees have been observed making them on the ground from leaves.^[8] It has been observed in other ground dwelling mammals as well, for example Asian Elephants in captivity have been observed creating pillows from straw, though the behaviour has not been observed in the wild.^[6] Since domestication, many animals have also learned to make use of human-made pillows and cushions.^[1]

• A Lion resting in a tree using a leg as a pillow
• A Leopard resting in a tree using a leg as a pillow
• Chimpanzee using an arm as a pillow
• Orangutan laying on a pillow made of twigs

Sometime between 5 and 23 million years ago tree-dwelling great apes began building sleeping platforms, including wooden pillows, to improve their sleep.^[9] According to studies on chimpanzees that sleep up to eight to nine hours a night using specifically selected ironwood pillows, sturdy pillows enabled great apes to escape being hunted by night predators and not fall out of the trees while asleep.^[9] It is likely that this was necessitated by the evolution of large, energy-consuming brains.^[9] Though it may also have led to longer periods of REM sleep, that in turn increased their cognitive capacity.^[9]

Humans began making beds 227,000 years ago in Africa made from ash and grass.^[10] Recent evidence from 185,000 years ago at Misliya Cave shows that Neanderthals did similar.^[11] Prior to this discovery, the earliest were believed to be 77,000 years old.^[10] Much later humans began switching to use of separate stone and wood to craft pillows for increased comfort.^[1]

Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt

The earliest recorded use of the modern human device dates back to the civilizations of Mesopotamia around 7,000 BC.^[12] During this time, only the wealthy used pillows.^[12] The number of pillows symbolized status so the more pillows one owned the more affluence they held.^[12] Pillows have long been produced around the world in order to help solve the reoccurring problem of neck, back, and shoulder pain while sleeping.^[13] Besides for comfort, the pillow was also used for keeping bugs and insects out of people’s hair, mouth, nose, and ears while sleeping.^[13]

Pillow use has been associated with the mummies and tombs of ancient Egypt during the 11th dynasty, dating to 2055–1985 B.C.^[14] Ancient Egyptian pillows were wooden or stone headrests.^[14] These pillows were mostly used by placing them under the heads of the deceased because the head of a human was considered to be the essence of life and sacred.^[14]

Ancient Europe

The Romans and Greeks of ancient Europe mastered the creation of the softer type pillow. These pillows were stuffed with reeds, feathers, and straw in order to make them softer and more comfortable.^[15] Only upper-class people typically owned these softer pillows; however, all classes of people were allowed to use some type of pillow while sleeping, lying down or sitting in order to give them support.^[15] People in ancient Europe started to use pillows when going to church in order to kneel on while praying and to place holy books on.^[16] This is a tradition that still lives on today. In addition, the Romans and Greeks used their pillows by placing them under the head of those deceased just like the ancient Egyptians did.^[15]

Ancient China

Chinese pillows were traditionally solid, though sometimes used with a softer fabric over them. Over many Chinese dynasties, pillows were made from a wide range of materials including bamboo, jade, porcelain, wood, and bronze.^[17] Ceramic pillows became the most popular.^[17] The use of the ceramic pillow first appeared in the Sui dynasty between 581 and 618 while mass production appeared in the Tang dynasty between 618 and 907.^[17] The Chinese decorated their pillows by making them different shapes and by painting pictures of animals, humans, and plants on them.^[17] One common type of pottery used was Cizhou ware. Chinese ceramic pillows reached their peak in terms of production and use during the Song, Jin, and Yuan dynasties between the 10th and 14th century, but slowly phased out during the Ming and Qing dynasties between 1368 and 1911 with the emergence of better pillow making materials.^[17]

Construction and parts

Pillows consist of a filler material enclosed in a fabric cover or shell. Covers are made of cloth, such as silk, known as the pillow case or pillow slip. Some pillows have a fancier cover called a sham which is closed on all sides and usually has a slit in the back through which the pillow is placed. Rectangular standard bed pillow cases usually do not have zippers, but instead, have one side open all the time. Often, a zippered pillow protector is placed around standard pillows with the case in turn covering the protector.

Fillers are chosen on the basis of comfort, resilience, thermal properties, cost and also for medical and ethical reasons. The most common synthetic fillers are materials derived from polymer fibers, such as polyester and memory foam. Synthetic fillers in general are inexpensive and in the case of memory foam can retain their form longer. Natural fillers have been used since antiquity. The most common are feathers, down, wool, latex, cotton (particularly in India), and buckwheat. More exotic materials have also been used including straw, wood, or stone. Down is usually the softer filler and offer good insulation, but is more expensive due to its relative scarcity. Down has been known to be plucked from live geese,^[18] but there are already cruelty-free certifications for down products.^[19] In India, traditional pillows are made with kapok, the fluffy, glossy fruit-fibres of the trees Ceiba pentandra and Bombax ceiba.

Lifespan, maintenance and waste management

The normal lifespan of a typical western pillow is two to four years.^[20] Condition of the pillow can be determined by checking for lumps or folding it in order to see if it stays in that shape.^[21] Replacement is recommended for sanitary reasons. All types of pillow covers should be laundered periodically since they are the part that is in contact with a person’s body. Pillows accumulate dust and microbes among the fill, even when washable pillows are washed. Manufacturers recommend tumble-drying for fifteen minutes every week to freshen them up, and for the heat to kill dust mites. Charities in most countries will not accept used pillows due to hygiene regulations. While some animal shelters accept forms of bedding, most reject donation of used pillows due to the mess they can cause.

Recycling of pillows, like most textile and bedding items, is expensive and has poor yield.^[22] As such, few are recycled and most end up in landfills.^[20] Their light weight means that they make up a low proportion of household waste by mass.^[22] Most of the few pillows collected for recycling are sent to India and Pakistan and used as low-cost bedding, or in South East Asia, co-mingled with other textiles to manufacture cheap bedding.^[22]

Types

A pillow is designed to provide support and comfort to the body and head. There are three main types of pillows; bed pillows, orthopedic pillows and decorative pillows, with some overlapping of use between these. The appropriate size of a bed pillow depends on the size of the bed. Larger pillows than standard are available for queen- and king-sized beds.

The choice of bed pillow depends to some extent upon sleeping positions: one manufacturer recommends a thinner and softer pillow for sleeping face down, medium support for sleeping on one’s back, and a thicker and firmer pillow for sleeping on the side.^[20]

Beds

The classic bed pillow shape is usually a square or rectangle. In the US, they are common in these three sizes (in inches): Standard (20×26 inches), Queen (20×30 inches), and King (20×36 inches). In the US, a less common size is Jumbo (20×28 inches), which is larger than the Standard Size but smaller than the Queen Size.

Pillows are generally covered with a removable pillow case, which facilitates laundering. Apart from the color and from the material of which they are made, pillowcases have three contrasting characteristics:

• Size
• Features
• Opening/closing

Size conforms to the pillow the case is to contain. They are typically described as:Standard16 in × 16 in (41 cm × 41 cm) (square)Square26 in × 26 in (66 cm × 66 cm)Standard20 in × 26 in (51 cm × 66 cm)Queen20 in × 30 in (51 cm × 76 cm)King20 in × 36 in (51 cm × 91 cm)

Square is also called continental in the UK. German pillow sizes are 80×80 cm (older) or 40×80 cm (newer). When considered as a subset of bed pillows, Euro pillows finish 26×26 in and older style travel pillows commonly finished 12×16 in.^{[citation needed]}

The main distinguishing feature is whether the pillow case is plain or with a valance around the edge. In the former case this is described as ‘plain style’ and in the latter as ‘Oxford style’.^{[This quote needs a citation]}

“Oxford … has a 5cm-10cm valance round all four sides. With a hemstitched or corded decoration around the inner edge of the valance.”

The opening/closure of pillow cases ranges from the straightforward “bag style” common in the United States to the “housewife style” more common in Europe, with a pocket inside the open end to fully contain the pillow.^{[This quote needs a citation]}

“Housewife is … essentially a bag, with a flap in the open end to tuck the pillowcase behind to keep it in…”

Other methods of closure are ties or buttons/buttonholes.

Body pillows are as long as a full adult body, providing support to the head and neck at the top and to the knees and legs lower down. This type of pillow can be especially useful in providing support for those who sleep on their sides and for pregnant women. Size is 40×140 cm. (See also: Dutch wife)

Bed pillow sizes

Location	Class	Dimension
Australia	Standard	48 cm × 73 cm (19 in × 29 in)
	European	65 cm × 65 cm (26 in × 26 in)
United Kingdom	“Europe” Standard	65 cm × 65 cm (26 in × 26 in)
	“Europe” Continental	80 cm × 80 cm (31 in × 31 in)
Germany	Standard	80 cm × 80 cm (31 in × 31 in)
	Small	40 cm × 80 cm (16 in × 31 in)
Danmark	Standard	60 cm × 60 cm (24 in × 24 in)
Netherlands, France	Standard	60 cm × 66 cm (24 in × 26 in)
Sweden	Standard	50 cm × 60 cm (20 in × 24 in)
Italy, Norway, Spain	Standard	50 cm × 70 cm (20 in × 28 in)
Poland	Standard	70 cm × 90 cm (28 in × 35 in)
United States	Standard	51 cm × 66 cm (20 in × 26 in)
	Jumbo	51 cm × 71 cm (20 in × 28 in)
	Queen	51 cm × 76 cm (20 in × 30 in)
	King	51 cm × 91 cm (20 in × 36 in)[23]

Orthopedic

Main article: Orthopedic pillow

Neck pillows support the neck by providing a deep area for the head to rest and a supportive area to keep the neck in alignment with the spine while sleeping. These can also be known as cervical pillows. Cervical pillows help patients to maintain comfortable positioning after therapeutic, orthopedic and surgical measures.^[24]

Travel pillows provide support for the neck in a sitting position. Their “U” shape fits around the back of the neck and keeps the head from slipping into an uncomfortable and possibly harmful position during sleep. However, U-shaped pillows can sometimes force the head forward, creating neck stiffness.

Doughnut pillows are firm pillows shaped like a torus, with a space in the middle to alleviate pressure on the tailbone area while sitting. These pillows are used primarily by individuals who have suffered an injury to the tailbone area, or who suffer pain from hemorrhoids or another ailment of the colon.

Lumbar pillows are designed to support the inward curve of the lower back, filling the space created between the lower back and the back of the chair when in a sitting position. These pillows are generally used to support the lower back while driving or sitting, such as in an office chair. Orthopedic pillows are similar to memory foam pillows.

Decorative

See also: Throw pillow

Decorative pillows serve a dual purpose. They often have fancy cover material which serves to decorate the room where they are found. Since decorative textiles are commonly 54 inches in width, many decorative pillows finish about 17×17 inches. (54/3 = 18, less seam allowance) When used to decorate a fully made up bed, decorative pillows are likely thrown aside at bedtime, since they are not covered with a washable pillow case, thus, while found on the bed, they are primarily there for decoration, hence they fall under this category. These pillows may be custom made, as well as made by freelancers.

Decorative pillows are also found on furnishings in more public parts of the home, such as sofas, chairs and window seats. Here, their common use may overlap both orthopedic and bed pillows. For example, unless a person has some particular medical condition, they will likely use a handy decorative pillow for lumbar support, as needed, while seated on a sofa. Likewise, for the occasional nap, decorative pillows are handy for supporting the head or neck, even though they may not be covered with a pillow case, as are bed pillows.

There are five common synonyms for decorative pillows which are descriptive of their use in the home. “Accent” pillows emphasize or accent some other part of the home decor. The terms “sofa pillow” and “couch pillow” refer to the place these decorative pillows are likely found. The terms “toss pillow” and “throw pillow” may refer to the way they generally arrive in their places.^[25]

Novelty pillows are shaped like humorous objects (a banana, tweety bird, a human leg, a chainsaw, a dill pickle, a former president) and are meant to brighten up and add humor to a room or lounge area.

Tent-flap pillows are placed at the front of a stack of pillows decorating a bed. This pillows have a separate flap of fabric that is attached at the top of the pillow and folds down over the face. The tent flap can be loose or tacked down; if the flap is loose a decorative tassel or bead is usually used to weigh the flap down so it hangs properly.^[26]

Floor pillows are another subset of decorative pillows. These pillows often finish 26×26 inches (one half of the width of the textile, less seam allowance).

Combination pillow

A combination pillow is a pillow which is for those sleepers which are sleeping in a combination of positions and would like to use their pillow to hug or play.^[27]

Culture

In many parts of the world, pillows have cultural significance, and references have extended to a wide variety of other uses, forms and activities.

Comfort pillows

In some cultures, pillows have forms for hugging. An example is the Dakimakura, a kind of “hugging pillow” originating in Japan that have been endowed with anthropomorphic and zoomorphic qualities and pop culture references for additional psychological comfort. Other types of hugging pillows are more practical, such as the Guling, long hugging pillow originating from Indonesia and the Abrazador, a long hugging pillow originating from the Philippines. A husband pillow (also known as a boyfriend pillow) is a large, high-backed pillow with two “arms.” It is used to prop the user upright while in bed or on the floor, as for reading or watching television. Because of this common use, a husband pillow is also called a reading pillow.^[28]

Activities

Pillow fighting

Main article: Pillow fight

A pillow fight is a common game mostly played by young children (but also by teens and adults) in which they engage in mock physical conflict, using pillows as weapons.

Pillow fights are known to occasionally occur during children’s sleepovers. Since pillows are usually soft, injuries rarely occur. The heft of a pillow can still knock a young person off balance, especially on a soft surface such as a bed, which is a common venue. In earlier eras, pillows would often break, shedding feathers throughout a room. Modern pillows tend to be stronger and are often filled with a solid block of artificial filling, so breakage occurs far less frequently.

Pillow talk

Main article: Pillow talk

Pillow talk refers to the relaxed, intimate conversation that often occurs between two sexual partners after sexual activity, usually accompanied by cuddling, caresses, and other physical intimacy. It is associated with honesty, sexual afterglow, and bonding.^[29] In the Western world there are many cultural references to pillow talk.

Chinese rock pillows

Chinese rock pillows (simplified Chinese: 石头枕头; traditional Chinese: 石頭枕頭; pinyin: shítou zhěntou) played an important role in ancient China. Made from jade, they were believed to translate the energy from the stone to the human brain.^{[citation needed]} Originating in the Ming dynasty, this piece of material was trusted to cure headaches or depression, or simply to better the intelligence of those who use it. It was more common among royalty because it was expensive and rare. Families often married off children based on the quality and intricacy of these pillows. Today, rock pillows are still commonly used during the hot summer months in China.^{[citation needed]}

Pillows for parts of the body

Cushioning designed for specific parts of the body are sometimes called pillows. An example is eye pillows which are designed to comfort the eyes. Some mousemats feature wrist rests, that while not generally called pillows, are another example.

Sex pillows

A sex pillow is a specially-designed and typically firm pillow used to enhance sexual intercourse. An ordinary firm pillow, however, may be used in place of a special one. Some contain a high-density urethane core to balance firm support with softness. In addition to more common pillow shapes, there are wedge-shaped, ramp-shaped, prism-shaped, etc. pillows which lend themselves to various sexual positions, some of which might be difficult or uncomfortable without them. A very common use of a sex pillow is to place it under the receiving partner’s buttocks or hips before assuming the missionary position; this pivots the pelvis and increases depth of penetration.^[30]

Pillow menu

A pillow menu is a list of available pillows provided by a hotel to guests, usually free of charge.^[31] It allows guests to make an alternative pillow choice. Some common pillow alternatives are memory foam, buckwheat hull, and hypoallergenic. Some hotels offer pillows to treat specific conditions such as headaches or stress.

A bed is an item of furniture that is used as a place to sleep, rest, and relax.^[1][2]

Most modern beds consist of a soft, cushioned mattress on a bed frame. The mattress rests either on a solid base, often wood slats, or a sprung base. Many beds include a box spring inner-sprung base, which is a large mattress-sized box containing wood and springs that provide additional support and suspension for the mattress. Beds are available in many sizes, ranging from infant-sized bassinets and cribs, to small beds for a single person or adult, to large queen and king-size beds designed for two people. While most beds are single mattresses on a fixed frame, there are other varieties, such as the murphy bed, which folds into a wall, the sofa bed, which folds out of a sofa, the trundle bed, which is stored under a low, twin-sized bed and can be rolled out to create a larger sleeping area, and the bunk bed, which provides two mattresses on two tiers as well as a ladder to access the upper tier. Temporary beds include the inflatable air mattress and the folding camp cot. Some beds contain neither a padded mattress nor a bed frame, such as the hammock. Other beds are made specifically for animals.

Beds may have a headboard for resting against, and may have side rails and footboards. “Headboard only” beds may incorporate a “dust ruffle”, “bed skirt”, or “valance sheet” to hide the bed frame. To support the head, a pillow made of a soft, padded material is usually placed on the top of the mattress. Some form of covering blanket is often used to insulate the sleeper, often bed sheets, a quilt, or a duvet, collectively referred to as bedding. Bedding is the removable non-furniture portion of a bed, which enables these components to be washed or aired out.

Etymology

In Europe, mattresses were stuffed with straw, chaff, animal hair (for instance horsehair, used for its resilience), coarse wool, or down feathers, and stacked, softest topmost. This pile of mattresses, and the sheets, blanket, and pillows, was what early Europeans called a “bed”; it might be packed away during the day (a usage which survives in words like featherbed). The bedframe, even when present, supported the bed, but was not considered part of it.^{[3]: 674–5 vol1} Later innovations made bedframes more portable, and increased their importance.^{[3]: 481vol3 : 674vol1 : 675–6 vol1}

History

See also: Bed base

Prehistory

In August 2020 scientists reported the discovery of the oldest grass bedding from at least 200,000 years ago, much older than the oldest previously known bedding. They speculate that insect-repellent plants and ash layers, sometimes due to burned older grass beddings, found beneath the bedding have been used for a dirt-free, insulated base and to keep away arthropods.^[4][5][6]

Ancient history

Early beds were little more than piles of straw or some other natural material (e.g. a heap of palm leaves, animal skins, or dried bracken).^[7] An important change was raising them off the ground, to avoid drafts, dirt, and pests.^{[citation needed]} In the Miocene period, lasting from twenty-three to five million years ago, before the emergence of humans, apes began creating beds composed of a sleeping platform including a wooden pillow.^[8]

Sub-Saharan Africa

Bedding dated around to 3600 BC was discovered in Sibudu Cave, South Africa.^[9] The bedding consists of sedge and other monocotyledons topped with the leaves of Cryptocarya woodii.^[9]

Europe

Beds found in a preserved northern Scottish village, which were raised boxes made of stone and likely topped with comfortable fillers, were dated to between 3200 BC and 2200 BC.^[10]

The Odyssey, an ancient Greek epic poem, describes the bed of its protagonist, Odysseus, and explains that he crafted the bed for himself and his wife, Penelope, out of a huge olive tree trunk that used to grow on the spot.^[11] The poem’s author, Homer, also mentions the inlaying of the woodwork of the bed with gold, silver, and ivory.^[11]

Ancient Roman mattresses were stuffed with reeds, hay, or wool. Feathers were used towards the end of the Republic, when custom demanded luxury. Small cushions were placed at the head and sometimes at the back. The bedsteads were high and could only be ascended by the help of steps. They were often arranged for two people, and had a board or railing at the back, as well as the raised portion at the head. The counterpanes were sometimes very costly, generally purple embroidered with figures in gold; and rich hangings fell to the ground masking the front. The bedsteads themselves were often of bronze inlaid with silver, and Elagabalus had one of solid silver. In the walls of some houses at Pompeii bed niches are found which were probably closed by curtains or sliding partitions. Ancient Romans had various kinds of beds for repose. These included:

• lectus cubicularis, or chamber bed, for normal sleeping
• lectus genialis, the marriage bed, it was much decorated, and was placed in the atrium opposite the door
• lectus discubitorius, or table bed, on which they ate—for they ate while lying on their left sides—there usually being three people to one bed, with the middle place accounted the most honorable position
• lectus lucubratorius, for studying
• and a lectus funebris, or emortualis, on which the dead were carried to the pyre^[12][13]

The Greeks and Romans were also having their meals in bed. They would recline on one side and reach out to pick up food from a nearby table.^[14]

Near East

The Egyptians had high bedsteads which were ascended by steps, with bolsters or pillows, and curtains to hang around.^[15] The elite of Egyptian society such as its pharaohs and queens even had beds made of wood, sometimes gilded. Often there was a head-rest as well, semi-cylindrical and made of stone, wood, or metal.^[16] Ancient Assyrians, Medes, and Persians had beds of a similar kind, and frequently decorated their furniture with inlays or appliques of metal, mother-of-pearl, and ivory.

Medieval history

In the early Middle Ages they laid carpets on the floor or on a bench against the wall, placed upon them were mattresses stuffed with feathers, wool, or hair, and used skins as a covering. Curtains were hung from the ceiling or from an iron arm projecting from the wall.^[18] They appear to have generally lain naked in bed, wrapping themselves in large linen sheets which were stretched over the cushions.

In the 12th century, luxury increased and bedsteads were made of wood much decorated with inlaid, carved, and painted ornamentation. They also used folding beds, which served as couches by day and had cushions covered with silk laid upon leather. At night a linen sheet was spread and pillows placed, while silk-covered skins served as coverlets. The Carolingian manuscripts show metal bedsteads much higher at the head than at the feet, and this shape continued in use until the 13th century in France, many cushions being added to raise the body to a sloping position. In 12th-century manuscripts, the bedsteads appear much richer, with inlays, carving, and painting, and with embroidered coverlets and mattresses in harmony. Curtains were hung above the bed and a small hanging lamp is often shown.^{[citation needed]}

In the 14th century the woodwork became of less importance, generally being entirely covered by hangings of rich materials. Silk, velvet, and even cloth of gold were frequently used. Inventories from the beginning of the 14th century give details of these hangings lined with fur and richly embroidered. It was then that the Four poster bed (also known as a tester bed) made its first appearance, the bed being slung from the ceiling or fastened to the walls, a form which developed later into a room within a room, shut in by double curtains, sometimes even to exclude all drafts. The space between the bed and the wall was called the ruelle, and very intimate friends were received there. The 14th century was also the time when feather beds became highly prized possessions.^[18] Beds in aristocratic residences can be distinguished by enclosed curtains, these beds would have mattresses and pillows that were filled with feathers. Sheets were made of linen and blankets of wool. Rails attached to the beds would be for hanging clothes or to hold candles. In less wealthy houses, the bed would be made of three planks and a mattress made of dried heather or fern, they would sleep with a single sheet and an old blanket.^[19]

In the 15th century beds became very large, reaching 7 to 8 feet (2.1 to 2.4 m) by 6 to 7 feet (1.8 to 2.1 m). The mattresses were often filled with pea-shucks, straw, or feathers. At this time great personages were in the habit of carrying most of their property about with them, including beds and bed hangings, and for this reason the bedsteads were for the most part mere frameworks to be covered up; but about the beginning of the 16th century bedsteads were made lighter and more decorative, since the lords remained in the same place for longer periods.^{[citation needed]}

Modern history

In the 17th century, which has been called “the century of magnificent beds”, the style à la duchesse, with tester and curtains only at the head, replaced the more enclosed beds in France, though they lasted much longer in England. Louis XIV had an enormous number of sumptuous beds, as many as 413 being described in the inventories of his palaces. Some of them had embroideries enriched with pearls, and figures on a silver or golden ground. The great bed at Versailles had crimson velvet curtains on which “The Triumph of Venus” was embroidered. So much gold was used that the velvet scarcely showed.

In the 18th century feather pillows were first used as coverings in Germany, which in the fashions of the bed and the curious etiquette connected with the bedchamber followed France for the most part. The beds were a la duchesse, but in France itself there was great variety both of name and shape. The custom of the “bed of justice” upon which the king of France reclined when he was present in parliament, the princes being seated, the great officials standing, and the lesser officials kneeling, was held to denote the royal power even more than the throne.

Louis XI is credited with its first use and the custom lasted until the end of the monarchy. In the chambre de parade, where the ceremonial bed was placed, certain persons, such as ambassadors or great lords, whom it was desired to honour, were received in a more intimate fashion than the crowd of courtiers. At Versailles women received their friends in their beds, both before and after childbirth, during periods of mourning, and even directly after marriage—in fact in any circumstances which were thought deserving of congratulation or condolence. During the 17th century this curious custom became general, perhaps to avoid the tiresome details of etiquette. Portable beds were used in high society in France until the end of the Ancien Régime. The earliest of which mention has been found belonged to Charles the Bold. They had curtains over a light framework, and were in their way as fine as the stationary beds.

Iron beds appear in the 18th century; the advertisements declare them as free from the insects which sometimes infested wooden bedsteads. Elsewhere, there was also the closed bed with sliding or folding shutters, and in England—where beds were commonly quite simple in form—the four poster was the usual citizen’s bed until the middle of the 19th century.

Bed sizes

Main article: Bed size

Bed sizes vary considerably around the world, with most countries having their own standards and terminology.

Notable examples

One of the largest beds in the world is the Great Bed of Ware, made in about 1580. It is 3.26 metres (10.7 ft) wide, 3.38 metres (11.1 ft) long. The bed is mentioned by Shakespeare in Twelfth Night. It is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum (V&A) in London. Another bed in the V&A is the Golden Bed created by William Burges in 1879.^[20]

In 1882, Nawab of Bahawalpur Sadiq Muhammad Khan Abassi IV had a bed made of dark wood ornamented with 290 kilograms (640 lb) of sterling silver. At each corner of the bed there was a life-sized bronze statue of a naked woman holding a fan. When the Nawab lay on the bed, his weight started a mechanism that made the women wave their fans and started a music box playing selections from Gounod’s Faust.^[21]

In 1865, a convertible bed in the form of an upright piano was available, which could provide home entertainment while saving space.^[22]

Types

See also: Category:Beds

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There are many varieties of beds:

• An adjustable bed is a bed that can be adjusted to a number of different positions. Most hospital beds are adjustable, so that a patient can have different parts of their body elevated for medical reasons. Some people have adjustable beds in private homes. Some adjustable beds are designed for couples; they use two separate mattresses and adjustment mechanisms. This permits one partner to be lying flat to sleep while the other has the head and shoulders elevated to watch television or read. Couple adjustable beds also permit partners with different medical conditions to select a mattress positioning that best suits them.
• An air bed uses an air-inflated mattress, sometimes connected to an electric air pump and having variable, firmness controls. The portable version of an air bed can also be rolled up and packed; so is meant for travel or temporary guest use.
• A bassinet is a bed specifically for newborns.
• A box-bed is a bed having the form of a large box with wooden roof, sides, and ends, opening in front with two sliding panels or shutters; often used in cottages in Scotland: sometimes also applied to a bed arranged to fold up into a box.
• A brass bed has a frame constructed from brass. A brass-plated bed is a cheaper bed of iron with a thin covering of brass, which with time peels off and the iron is exposed.
• A bunk bed is two or more beds one atop the other. Bunk beds are used for adults in military barracks and in some ski lodges. Bunk beds are used for children and teens in summer camps. Some inexpensive hostels provide bunk beds for guests. Bunk beds are used for children in private homes.
• A loft bed is similar to a bunk bed, except there is no lower bunk. This leaves space underneath for storage, other furniture, a desk etc.
• A captain’s bed^[24] (also known as a “captain bed”, “chest bed”, or “cabin bed”) is a platform bed with drawers and storage compartments built in underneath.
• A camp bed (also “cot”, in American English) is a simple, temporary, portable bed used by armies and by campers. Camp beds are also used to provide a sleeping surface for refugees and other homeless people during disasters, floods, or other crises.
• A canopy bed is similar to a four poster bed, but the posts usually extend higher and are adorned or draped with cloth, sometimes completely enclosing the bed. Examples include the lit à la polonaise and the lit a la turque.
• A curtained bed is a luxury bed with curtains.
• A daybed is a couch that is used as a seat by day and as a bed by night. Usually it has pop up trundle which is used as bed in the night.
• A futon is a traditional style of Japanese bed using a mattress on a wooden frame. Futons are also available in a larger Western style which can fold halfway for sitting. Futons were traditionally made with cotton, but in the 2000s, many futons include synthetic foam.
• A four poster bed is a bed with four posts, one in each corner, that support a tester.
• A hammock is a piece of suspended fabric or netting, used on ships and in some homes.
• A hideaway bed, invented by Sarah E. Goode in response to the needs of apartment-dwellers, folds up into another piece of furniture, such as a shelf or desk, when not in use.
• A hospital bed is specifically designed to facilitate convalescence, traditionally in a hospital or nursing facility, but increasingly in other settings, such as a private residence. Hospital beds are typically adjustable, so that the head or feet can be raised or lowered. Modern hospital beds commonly have wheels to assist in moderate relocation, but they are larger and generally more permanently placed than a trolley (US: gurney). The “hospital bed” is also a common unit of measurement for the capacity of any type of inpatient medical facility, though it is just as common to shorten the term to “bed” in that usage (e.g. The hospital has 250 beds…).
• An infant bed (also “crib” or “cot”) is a small bed specifically for babies and infants.
• An iron bed, developed in the 1850s, is constructed of iron and steel.
• A kang bed-stove is a Chinese ceramic room heater used as the platform for a bed.
• A Charpai is a traditional Punjabi bed made of tied ropes bordered by a wooden frame.
• A mourning bed (“illustration”) is a formal canopied bed, with the deceased, a wax effigy, or symbols of rank.
• A Murphy bed or wallbed is a bed that can fold up into a wall or cabinet to save space.
• An Ottoman bed (in the UK) is a type of storage bed in which the storage area is placed underneath the mattress base and accessed by lifting the hinged mattress frame with the help of a spring or hydraulic mechanism.
• A pallet is a thin, lightweight mattress.
• A platform bed is a mattress resting on a solid, flat raised surface, either free-standing or part of the structure of the room.
• A roll-away bed is a bed whose frame folds in half and rolls in order to be more easily stored and moved. This is used in different settings, including hotels for either free or a nominal fee per night, where more people than expected may need to sleep in the same room, e.g. 5 people in a hotel room for 4 (two twin beds).
• A rope bed has a wooden frame within which crossing ropes, which may support a straw- or down-filled single mattress. See charpai.
• A slat bed is a flatpack bed with wooden slats for the bedbase.
• A sofabed (“pull-out” or “pull-out bed”) is a folding bed that is stored inside a sofa. Sofa beds are also called “convertibles” and “hideaways.”
• A state bed developed in Early Modern Europe from a hieratic canopy of state.
• A toddler bed is a small bed for young children.
• A trundle bed or “truckle bed” is a bed usually stored beneath another bed during the day. They have been in use for centuries. In the modern era they are sometimes referred to as a “sleepover bed” or “daybed with pop up trundle.”
• A vibrating bed (also known as a Magic Fingers bed) is typically a coin-operated novelty found in a vintage (c. 1960s-early 1980s) motel. For a nominal fee, the mattress vibrates for a duration of time. Alternatively it is a modern bed which vibrates by use of an off-centre motor. It is controlled by electronics for varying time and amplitude settings and is used therapeutically to ease back pains or as an erotic aid.
• A waterbed is a flexible plastic mattress full of water. The plastic container needs a strong frame around it.

Frames

Main article: Bed frame

Bed frames, also called bed steads, are made of wood or metal. The frame is made up of head, foot, and side rails. For heavy duty or larger frames (such as for queen- and king-sized beds), the bed frame also includes a center support rail. The rails are assembled to create a box for the mattress or mattress/box spring to sit on.

Types include:

• platform – typically used without a box spring.
• captain or storage – has drawers beneath the frame to make use of the space between the floor and the bed frame.
• waterbed – a heavy-duty frame built specifically to support the weight of the water in the mattress. (Mainly used on larger models)

Although not truly parts of a bed frame, headboards, footboards, and bed rails can be included in the definition. Headboards and footboards can be wood or metal. They can be stained, painted, or covered in fabric or leather.

Bed rails are made of wood or metal and are attached to a headboard and footboard. Wooden slats are placed perpendicular to the bed rails to support the mattress/mattress box spring. Bed rails and frames are often attached to the bed post using knock-down fittings.^[25][26] A knock-down fitting enables the bed to be easily dismantled for removal. Primary knock-down fittings for bed rails are as follows:

• Pin-and-hook fastener. A mortise or slot is cut vertically in the bedpost. Pins are inserted horizontally in the bed post so that the pins perpendicularly intersect the mortise. For example, if one looked in the mortise, one might see part of one horizontal pin at the bottom of the mortise and a part of a second pin toward the top of the mortise. Hooks are installed at the end of the rail. Usually these hooks are part of a plate that is attached to the rail. The hooks then are inserted into the bed post mortise and hook over the pins.
• Plate-and-hook fastener. Instead of pins inserted horizontally into the bedpost, an eye plate (post plate) is installed on the bedpost. The hooks are installed on the rail, either as surface mount or recessed. Depending on the hardware, the bedpost may require a mortise in order to allow the hooks to fasten to the plate. This is also referred to as a keyhole fastener, especially if the connector is more of a “plug” than a “hook”.
• Bed bolts (“through-bolts”), are a different means of a knock-down connection. A hole is typically drilled through the bedpost. The bolt head is inset and covered with a plug. In the rail, a dowel nut or other type of nut receives the bolt. The springs are made from metal, which are swirled for maximum comfort

Safety rails, or cot sides, can be added to the sides of a bed (normally a child or elderly person’s bed) to stop anyone falling out of the sides of the bed.^[27] A safety rail is normally a piece of wood that attaches to the side rails, on one or both sides of the bed. They are made so that they can be easily removed when no longer required.